ScienceDirect - Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials : Research frontiers in magnetic materials at soft X-ray synchrotron radiation facilities

J. B. Kortright ^,^,^a, D. D. Awschalom^b, J. Stöhr^c, S. D. Bader^d, Y. U. Idzerda^e, S. S. P. Parkin^c, Ivan K. Schuller^f and H. -C. Siegmann^g

^a Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
^b Physics Department, University of California – Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
^c IBM Almaden Research Center, San Jose, CA 95120-6099, USA
^d Materials Sciences Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL 60439, USA
^e Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC 20375, USA
^f Physics Department-0319, University of California – San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
^g ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland

Received 19 March 1999; revised 2 June 1999. Available online 17 November 1999.

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Fig. 1. Some geometrical arrangements of magnetic nanostructures of current interest are illustrated here. In general, dark features represent magnetic material. The top row indicates ordered monolayers and nanoscale thin films, sandwich structures, and multilayers. Wedged thin films present a range of thicknesses for study in a single sample. Decorated steps and quantum corrals have been grown with atomic-level control. Laterally patterned structures in the bottom include thin films, magnetic dots and wires, and arrays of magnetic-multilayer columns. The broad range of materials that can be grown in these nanostructures present many interesting fundamental questions and potential technological applications. They also present many experimental challenges, such as distinguishing magnetism in buried ultrathin layers from that at the interfaces between them (figure courtesy of S.D. Bader, Argonne National Laboratory).

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Fig. 2. Magnetic recording heads typically consist of a write head and a read head within the same lithographically defined structure. The write head consists of a coil and a yoke that guides the magnetic flux created by the coil to a pole tip. The large magnetic field emerging from the pole tip is used to write the magnetic bits into a thin magnetic film on a rotating magnetic-recording disk. The read head is used to retrieve the information written on the disk. It senses the magnetic flux emerging from the transition regions between the bits on the disk (see Fig. 12). In the spin-valve giant-magnetoresistance (GMR) head shown here, the flux from the disk is large enough to change the magnetization direction in one of the ferromagnetic layers which comprise the head. The magnetization direction in the second ferromagnetic layer is pinned by exchange coupling to an antiferromagnet and does not be rotate. Owing to the so-called GMR effect, a sense current flowing through the spin valve experiences a resistance that is higher by about 10% when the two ferromagnetic layers are magnetically aligned antiparallel rather than parallel (figure courtesy of J. Stöhr, IBM Almaden Research Center).

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Fig. 3. Schematic illustration of a magnetic memory cell. The cell consists of a tunnel junction in which two ferromagnetic layers (e.g., cobalt) are separated by an insulator (e.g., Al₂O₃). The tunnel current flowing through the read line senses a resistance that depends on the relative orientation of the two magnetic layers, i.e., whether they are parallel (1) or antiparallel (0). As in the spin valve shown in Fig. 2, the magnetization direction in one of the magnetic layers is pinned by exchange coupling to an antiferromagnet. The magnetization direction in the other magnetic layer can be rotated by the magnetic field of a current flowing in a nearby write line (figure courtesy of J. Stöhr IBM Almaden Research Center).

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Fig. 4. Anisotropy constants for various magnetic materials show trends that reveal correlations between atomic structure, crystal structure and magnetism. Anisotropy is a fundamental property defining the suitability of magnetic materials for different applications whose microscopic origin is still being unraveled. Experimental probes that are sensitive to the spin-resolved electronic states underlying anisotropy in complex materials are needed to explain these trends at a microscopic level (figure courtesy of D. Weller, IBM, based on data taken from B.D. Cullity, Introduction to Magnetic Materials, Addison-Westley, Reading, MA, 1972, p. 381, and T. Klemmer et al., Scripta Metallurgica et Materialia 33 (1995) 1793).

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Fig. 5. Principles of scanning X-ray microscopy and two imaging X-ray microscopy techniques are shown. In the scanning mode (a) a small X-ray spot is formed by a suitable X-ray optic, e.g., a zone plate lens as shown, and the sample is scanned relative to the X-ray focal spot. The spatial resolution is determined by the spot size. The intensity of the transmitted X-rays or the fluorescence or electron yield from the sample is detected as a function of the sample position and thus determines the contrast in the image. In imaging transmission X-ray microscopy shown in (b), a condenser zone plate in conjunction with a pinhole before the sample produces a monochromatic photon spot on the sample. A micro-zone plate generates a magnified image of the sample that can be viewed in real time by a X-ray sensitive CCD camera. The spatial resolution is determined by the width of the outermost zones in the micro zone plate. In imaging X-ray photoelectron microscopy shown in (c), the X-rays are only moderately focused in order to match the field of view of an electron microscope. Electrons emitted from the sample are projected with magnification onto a phosphor screen and the image can be viewed in real time at video rates. The spatial resolution is determined by the electron optics within the microscope, the size of the aperture and the operation voltage (from Ref. [162]).

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Fig. 6. Origin of the magnetocrystalline anisotropy illustrated by XMCD results for a Au/Co/Au wedge sample. The wedge shown has an in-plane easy axis at the thick end and an out-of-plane easy axis at its thin end. The measured angle-dependent orbital moment is found to become increasingly anisotropic towards the thin end where it strongly favors a perpendicular direction and redirects the spin moment from an in-plane orientation, the one favored by the dipolar coupling of the isotropic atomic spins (shape anisotropy), to the unusual perpendicular direction. The measured size of the independently determined isotropic spin moment is also shown (see Ref. [36]).

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Fig. 7. Changing structure and magnetism with composition in six-monolayer thick Fe_xNi_1−x/Cu(1 0 0) films are revealed using photoemission in conjunction with magnetic linear dichroism. The composition dependence of the dichroism at the iron and nickel 3p levels (top) and of the atomic volume of the films (bottom) reveal a clear correlation between structure and magnetism. (from Ref. [171]).

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Fig. 8. Longitudinal X-ray magnetooptical Kerr rotation hysteresis loops reveal the individual magnetization response for iron and chromium layers in a polycrystalline Fe/Cr multilayer. In this sample the Fe layers couple ferromagnetically and the Cr layers possess a significant moment oriented opposite to that of Fe. The net Cr moment results from the interfaces where a significant number of Cr moments are uncompensated, possibly due to intermixing with Fe to yield ferrimagnetic local order. Obtained using a low 2° grazing-incidence angle, these curves are primarily sensitive to the in-plane magnetization in just the top Fe/Cr bilayer, while measurements at higher angles in reflection or in transmission would weight the curves with significantly increased contributions from deeper layers (from Ref. [49]).

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Fig. 9. Interference between quantum-well states in different layers of magnetic multilayers is shown in the image of photoemission-intensity modulations with varying thickness of two different layers (see sample schematic). In addition to the double-wedged sample (grown in situ), an intense X -ray spot 50–100 small mu, Greek

m in size made possible by the undulator brightness was needed to observe these features. The clear dependence of the interference on multiple film thicknesses provides strong support for a model in which spin-polarized quantum-well states mediate oscillatory coupling in magnetic multilayers that in turn exhibit giant magnetoresistance (from Ref. [182]).

(12K)
Fig. 10. Spin-polarized photoemission spectra of a 1900-Å thick film of La_0.7Sr_0.3MnO₃ taken at T=40 K (T _C=350 K). The photon energy and experimental resolution were 40 and 0.2 eV, respectively. A magnetic pulse coil with a magnetic field of about 200 Oe was used for magnetization of the sample. The inset shows the magnetization (M) versus applied magnetic field (H) hysteresis loop, which was obtained by monitoring manganese L₂-edge absorption of circularly polarized incident light (from Ref. [28]).

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Fig. 11. Magnetic domain pattern of a Gd/Fe multilayer film measured with circularly polarized X-rays at the iron L₃ edge as a function of an applied magnetic field, using a transmission X-ray microscope. The domains have magnetization directions perpendicular to the film. The magnetic resolution is between 30 and 40 nm (from Ref. [191]).

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Fig. 12. Advanced computer disks consisting of granular magnetic materials like CoPtCr with admixtures of boron or tantalum in order to minimize the transition width between the magnetic domains. In the disk material, the grains are believed to be coated by a nonmagnetic shell that reduces the magnetic coupling between the grains. A small transition width is required in order to achieve a high magnetic-flux density in the direction perpendicular to the disk surface, as shown. The flux from the spinning disk is sensed by the spin-valve magnetic read head shown in Fig. 2 (figure courtesy of J. Stöhr, IBM Almaden Research Center).

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Topical review

Research frontiers in magnetic materials at soft X-ray synchrotron radiation facilities

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